Langue denotes the abstract systematic principles language

Psycholinguistics, Socio linguistics, Anthropological Linguistics, Literary Stylistics. Relationship between branches of linguistics.

UNIT II – Fundam ental Concepts and Distinctions in Linguistics (9 Hrs) The Language / Parole distinction, and competence vs Performance. Branches of Linguistics . Diachronic and Synchronic Approaches.

Text Book:
Syal P.& Jindal D.V.( 2009) An Introduction to Linguistics PHI Learning Pvt Ltd. New Delhi
Reference:
Bruce Haye et al. ( 2013 )Linguistics: An Introduction to Linguistic Theory. John Wiley & Sons. India Elizabeth Winkler. (2015)Understanding Language: A Basic Course in Linguistics. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Wrenn C. L. English Language ISBN 9780706999068. Vikas Publications. India

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DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

Human beings can communicate with each other. We are able to exchange knowledge, beliefs, opinions, wishes, threats, commands, thanks, promises, declarations, feelings – only our imagination sets limits. We can laugh to express amusement, happiness, or disrespect, we can smile to express amusement, pleasure, approval, or bitter feelings, we can shriek to express anger, excitement, or fear, we can clench our fists to express determination, anger or a threat, we can raise our eyebrows to express surprise or disapproval, and so on, but our system of communication before anything else is language.The first step towards a definition we can say that it is a system of communication-based upon words and the combination of words into sentences. Communication by means of language may be referred to as linguistic communication, the other ways mentioned above – laughing, smiling, shrieking, and so on –are types of non-linguistic communication.

Most of all non-human species can exchange information, but none of them is known to have a system of communication with a complexity that in any way is comparable to language. Primarily, they communicate with non-linguistic means resembling our smiling, laughing, yelling, clenching of fists, and raising of eyebrows. Chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans can exchange different kinds of information by emitting different kinds of shrieks, composing their faces in numerous ways, and moving their hands or arms in different gestures, but they do not have words and sentences. By moving in certain patterns, bees are apparently able to tell their fellow workers where to find honey, but apparently not very much else. Birds sing different songs, whose main functions are to defend their territory or to attract a mate. Language – as defined above – is an exclusively human property.

characters). In spoken language, this symbol set consists of noises resulting from movements of certain organs within the throat and mouth. In signed languages, these symbols may be hand or body movements, gestures, or facial expressions. By means of these symbols, people are able to impart information, to express feelings and emotions, to influence the activities of others, and to comport themselves with varying degrees of friendliness or hostility toward persons who make use of substantially the same set of symbols.

Language as a Means of Communication

First, what is meant by arbitrary? Some dictionary definitions of arbitrary include based on random choice or personal whim, rather than any reason or system, existing or coming about seemingly at random or by chance or as a capricious and unreasonable act of will, based on chance rather than being planned or based on reason, something that is determined by judgment or whim and not for any specific reason or rule, and based on individual discretion or judgment; not based on any objective distinction, perhaps even made at random.

Why is language arbitrary? Arbitrariness refers to the quality of “being determined by randomness and not for a specific reason.” Language consists of signifiers that represent the signified. But the signifier is not the signified. A signifier is a form such as a sound, morpheme, word, phrase, clause, or sign. The signified is that to which a signifier refers such

Language is a system and complex as organs of the human body. The system of the body functions through different organs such as the heart, lungs, brain, ears and eyes. These various organs are interconnected and work in coordination. Similarly, the systems of a language function through sound, words and structure. These are integrated with one another and constitute the complex organic whole which is language. While someone says, “My friend is reading a book” he uses language, he uses sounds (m, ai, f, r, e, n, d, z, r, I’d, I, t], a, b, u, k), words (my, friend, is, reading, a book) and an accepted sentence pattern (SvVo). He could not communicate if he were to use only of the elements of language. It should be taught and learnt as a system.

Language is a system of phonetics, grammar and vocabulary, which in themselves are systems.

Language is Vocal

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Language Vs Animal Communication

Communication in both animals and humans consists of signals. Signals are sounds or gestures that have some meaning to those using them. The meaning is often self-evident based on context: for example, many animals roar, growl, or groan in response to threats of danger; similarly, humans may wave their arms or scream in the event of something dangerous. These signals in these situations are designed to let others in the species know that something is wrong and the animal or human needs help.

Human language is also the only kind that is modality-independent; that is, it can be used across multiple channels. Verbal language is auditory, but other forms of language—writing and sign language (visual), Braille (tactile)—are possible in more complex human language systems.

One of the most famous case studies in the debate over how complex nonhuman-primate language can be is Koko the gorilla. Koko is famous for having learned over a thousand signs of “Gorilla Sign Language,” a simple sign language developed to try to teach nonhuman primates complex language. Koko can respond in GSL to about two thousand words of spoken English. However, it is generally accepted that she does not use syntax or grammar, and that her use of language does not exceed that of a young human child.

Language symbols represent things and are not the things themselves. The word ‘table’ is not a table. It stands for a table. The word ‘boy’ is not a boy. It stands for a boy. There is no logical connection between the symbols and the referent Symbols get their meaning by convention. A sign, on the other hand, has a direct relation to the object it signifies. A road sign showing the figure of a boy with a school bag cautions a vehicle driver that he is approaching a school. The language uses words essentially as a symbol and not as signs for the concepts represented by them.

Language is a powerful source of communication. All languages are used for the purpose of communication. A language is a means by which a person expresses his thoughts and feelings

Productivity is a general term in linguistics referring to the limitless ability to use language—any natural language—to say new things. It is also known as open-endedness or creativity.The term productivity is also applied in a narrower sense to particular forms or constructions (such as affixes) that can be used to produce new instances of the same type. In this sense, productivity is most commonly discussed in connection with word-formation.

"Humans are continually creating new expressions and novel utterances by manipulating their linguistic resources to describe new objects and situations. This property is described as productivity (or 'creativity' or 'open-endedness') and it is linked to the fact that the potential number of utterances in any human language is infinite.

In a nutshell: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Linguists apply the scientific method to conduct formal studies of speech sounds and gestures, grammatical structures, and meaning across the world’s 6,000+ languages.

Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Linguists (experts in linguistics) work on specific languages, but their primary goal is to understand the nature of language in general by asking questions such as:

 How can a previously unstudied language be analyzed and written?

 How can foreign languages best be taught and learned?

Linguistics is the science of language, and linguists are scientists who apply the scientific method to questions about the nature and function of language.

Linguists conduct formal studies of speech sounds, grammatical structures, and meaning across all the world’s over 6,000 languages. They also investigate the history of and changes within language families and how language is acquired when we are infants. Linguists examine the relationship between written and spoken language as well as the underlying neural structures that enable us to use language.

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is the term used for a person who has knowledge of multiple languages. And although it is possible for a person to be both a linguist and a polyglot, it is just as possible that a linguist speaks only one language.

Language description, aiming at in-depth analyses of the world’s languages. Descriptive linguistics is concerned with the study of the structure of languages through an analysis of the forms, structures and processes at all levels of language structure: phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon, semantics and pragmatics. It is based on data gathered through fieldwork, preferably immersion fieldwork for extended periods of time. It draws on ethnographic and linguistic methods. Languages are of strategic importance in understanding the history and culture of a people and the cognitive capacities of humans, as in Sapir’s idea of linguistics as a science. Our main focus areas are Meso- and South America, North, West and East Africa, and insular Southeast Asia. The researchers in this domain strive to expand the regions of expertise in order to improve the coverage of the world’s linguistic diversity. Leiden University has a long and strong tradition in producing comprehensive grammars of understudied languages. LUCL researchers are active in the development of the new field of language documentation. Language documentation is broader than description: it not only entails the establishment of searchable annotated audio and video corpora, including the most relevant cultural practices, but also involves reflection on data and on the nature of variation. The challenge for the coming years is to strengthen the programme’s position in developing the field of language documentation and to combine this with deeper linguistic analyses of the languages that are studied. The present context of LUCL favours these aims. The world’s heritage of linguistic diversity is endangered in many different ways. Our research group is dedicated to documenting that diversity, and we have been able to raise specific funding for this goal.

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Due to the intricate structure of languages and their far-reaching impact, there are various subfields, domains, and specialised branches of linguistics. Here are the main branches of linguistics with examples.

Psycholinguistics - Psycholinguistics is amongst the most popular branches of linguistics that studies the relationship between psychological processes and linguistic behaviour. An example of psycholinguistics is found in the study of how humans perceive language and why certain words have the capacity to trigger us emotionally, more so than other words. Such branches of linguistics also seek to understand how humans acquire and master languages. Psycholinguists often work with child psychologists and conduct research on speech and language development to understand how humans perceive and produce language.

separated by thousands of kilometres and years, but which nevertheless have structural and etymological similarities.

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2. Plag, I., Braun, M., Arndtlappe, S., & Schramm, M. (2015). Introduction to English Linguistics (Mouton Textbook) (3rd ed.). De Gruyter Mouton.

3. Altshuler, D., Parsons, T., & Schwarzschild, R. (2019). A Course in Semantics (The MIT Press). The MIT Press.

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The Language / Parole distinction

The distinction between the French words, langue (language or tongue) and parole (speech), enters the vocabulary of theoretical linguistics with Ferdinand de Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics, which was published posthumously in 1915 after having been collocated from student notes. La langue denotes the abstract systematic principles of a language, without which no meaningful utterance (parole) would be possible. The Course manifests a shift from the search for origins and ideals, typical of nineteenth century science, to the establishment of systems. The modern notion of system is reflected in the title of the course: General Linguistics. Saussure in this way indicates that the course will be about language in general: not this or that particular language (Chinese or French) and not this or that aspect (phonetics or semantics). A general linguistics would be impossible by empirical means because there exist innumerable objects that can be considered linguistic. Instead Saussure’s methodology allows him to establish a coherent object for linguistics in the distinction between langue and parole.

Competence Vs Performance

How do we know that students have learned a language? We can assess students using formative and summative assessments but how do we know that students will actually be able to use their language in real-life, authentic situations? In short, how do we know that our students are competent in the target language? One way to judge this competency is through students’ performance. However, how do we know that this performance is an accurate measure of what students actually know? In this section we will examine these questions further by looking at competence versus performance.

Synchronic linguistics is one of the two main temporal dimensions of language study introduced by Saussure in his "Course in General Linguistics" (1916). The other is diachronic linguistics, which is the study of language through periods of time in history. The first looks at a snapshot of a language, and the other studies its evolution (like a frame of film vs. a movie).

For example, analyzing the word order in a sentence in Old English only would be a study in synchronistic linguistics. If you looked at how word order changed in a sentence from Old English to Middle English and now to modern English, that would be a diachronic study.

1) Syal P.& Jindal D.V.( 2009) An Introduction to Linguistics PHI Learning Pvt Ltd. New Delhi.

2) Plag, I., Braun, M., Arndtlappe, S., & Schramm, M. (2015). Introduction to English Linguistics (Mouton Textbook) (3rd ed.). De Gruyter Mouton.

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Modern Linguistics

The Study of Language Variation

"Linguistic variation is central to the study of language use. In fact it is impossible to study the language forms used in natural texts without being confronted with the issue of linguistic variability. Variability is inherent in human language: a single speaker will use different linguistic forms on different occasions, and different speakers of a language will express the same meanings using different forms. Most of this variation is highly systematic: speakers of a language make choices in pronunciation, morphology, word choice, and grammar depending on a number of non-linguistic factors. These factors include the speaker's purpose in communication, the relationship between speaker and hearer, the production circumstances, and various demographic affiliations that a speaker can have."

"There are two types of language variation: linguistic and sociolinguistic. With linguistic variation, the alternation between elements is categorically constrained by the linguistic context in which they occur. With sociolinguistic variation, speakers can choose between elements in the same linguistic context and, hence the alternation is probabilistic. Furthermore, the probability of one form being chosen over another is also affected in a probabilistic way by a range of extra-linguistic factors [e.g. the degree of (in)formality of the topic under discussion, the social status of the speaker and of the interlocutor, the setting in which communication takes place, etc.]"

Some Diachronic Variations in Language

"Diachronic linguistics is the historical study of language, whereas synchronic linguistics is the geographic study of language. Diachronic linguistics refers to the study of how a language evolves over a period of time. Tracing the development of English from the Old English period to the twentieth century is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language is a comparison of languages or dialects—various spoken differences of the same language—used within some defined spatial region and during the same period of time. Determining the regions of the United States in which people currently say 'pop' rather than 'soda' and 'idea' rather than 'idear' are examples of the types of inquiries pertinent to a synchronic study."

For some authors, when an innovative form or structure appears or already exists it constitutes a change in the linguistic system. Stolz (2006: 15), for example, defines the notion of (contact-induced) typological change: “For typological change to occur in a language A,

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The S-curve model is largely accepted as representing the transmission and propagation of a linguistic innovation (Aitchison 1991; Labov 1994; Croft 2000; Kroch 1989; Denison 2003). In its ideal manifestation, the innovative form spreads slowly at the beginning, then becomes rapidly more and more frequent before the process slows down considerably, just before reaching completion. The new form, now seen as acceptable and stable, is conventionalized.

Varieties of Dialect